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         Intrauterine Dwarfism:     more detail

41. Home Organizations Medical Library Legal Gallery Registry
Dysosteosclerosis; Dyssegmental dwarfism; Dyssegmental Dysplasia, SilvermanHandmakerType; DDSH; Finger Locking, Recurrent, With intrauterine Growth Retardation
http://www.dwarfism.org/medical/types.php
Webmasters:
Types of Dwarfism
There are currently 521 verified types of dwarfism listed.
This list is a work in progress, changes may be applied as needed.
  • Aarskog Syndrome
    Abidi X-Linked Mental Retardation Syndrome

    Achondrogenesis, Type IA; ACG1A

    Achondrogenesis, Type IB; ACG1B
    ...
    Zinc Finger Transcription Factor TRPS1; TRPS1

  • List compiled from the Human Genome Database

    42. OBGYN.net Ultrasound Section - May Case Study
    states that there is a group of microcephalic dwarfism variants which The primarydiagnostic features are; severe intrauterine growth restriction, microcephaly
    http://www.obgyn.net/us/cotm/9805/cotm9805.htm
    OBGYN.net Ultrasound: Case of the Month May 1998
    Seckel Syndrome: A Case Study of Prenatal Sonographic Diagnosis
    by Victoria Alderman, MA, RDMS OBGYN.net Ultrasound Advisory Board Member
    Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
    Seckel Syndrome is a rare (<1:10,000) constellation of malformations, presumably inherited as an autosomal-recessive trait. The primary characteristic features of Seckel Syndrome (SS) include; severe intrauterine growth restriction, microcephaly, orofacial dysmorphology with characteristic "bird-headed" appearance, and mental retardation. Case Report The patient is a 43 year old gravida 5, para 3, with a history of a child diagnosed with SS . The effected child died at the age of three years secondary to respiratory complications sustained under general anesthesia during a minor surgical procedure. The patient presented for ultrasound evaluation and genetic amniocentesis at 15.0 weeks gestation by menstrual history. Ultrasound demonstrated a normal appearing female fetus. Fetal biometry was consistent with 15.0 weeks gestation, with all parameters equal to the mean for gestational age. Menstrual dates were therefore confirmed as accurate. Genetic amniocentesis was performed without complications. In light of the patient's history of an SS effected child, repeat ultrasound evaluation were recommended to monitor fetal growth. Chromosomal analysis showed a normal 46,XX karyotype. Subsequent ultrasound examinations are summarized below.

    43. References
    in intrauterine growth retarded fetuses. Program, Soc Gynecologic Investig, Abstr034, page 103. Laron Z et al (1972) The syndrome of familial dwarfism and
    http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food2/UID03E/uid03e0b.htm
    Contents Previous Next
    References
    Adamson ED (1993): Activities of growth factors in pre-implantation embryos. J. Cell Biochem Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) Baker H et al (1975): Vitamin profile of 174 mothers and new born at parturition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr Basset NS et al (1990): The effect of maternal starvation on plasma insulin-like growth factor I concentration in the late gestation ovine fetus. Pediatr. Res An introduction to Fetal Physiology . Orlando Academic Press. Am. J. Clin. Nutr Am. J. Obstet Gynecol Lancet J. Obstet. Gynaecol Br. Commonw Borle AB (1981): Control, modulation and regulation of cell calcium. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol J. Am. Diet. Assoc Bulmer M (1970): The Biology of Twinning in Man . Oxford University Press: Oxford. Butherworth RF et al (1991): Thiamine deficiency and Wernicke's Encephalopaty in AIDS. Metab. Brain Dis. Perinatal Mortality . Livingstone: Edinburg. Am. J. Clin. Nutr Malnutrition and the infant brain . Wiley-Liss Inc: New York, pp 207-224. . 1st ed. Stockton Press: New York. J. Nutr. Biochem

    44. References
    P, Attree O Novelli G (1989) Laron dwarfism and mutation of sera Ontogeny duringgestation and differences in newborns with intrauterine growth retardation
    http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food2/UID06E/uid06e0z.htm
    Contents Previous Next
    References
    N. Engl. J. Med. Endocrinology Cytgenet. Cell Genet. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. Genes Dev. Baxter RC (1992): Insulin like growth factor binding: Regulators of IGF-I actions. Ninth International Congress of Endocrinology (abstract). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. J. Endocrinol. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA Acta Paediatr. Scand Bourguinon JP (1988): Linear growth as a function of age at onset of puberty and sex steroid dosage. Therapeutical implications. Endocr. Rev. Acta Paediatr. Scand, (Suppl.), Mol. Endocrinol. J. Clin. Endocr. Metab. Handbook of physiology, J. Endocrinol. Endocrinology Modern concepts of insulin-like growth factors, ed. EM Spencer, pp. 395-408. New York: Elsevier. Endocr. Rev. A.J.D.C EMBO J. Acta Physiol. Scand (Suppl.) Endocrinology Mol. Endocrinol. Science J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. Endocrinology Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA Differentiation Guyda H (1991): Concepts of IGF-I physiology. In Modem concepts of insulin-like growth factors, ed. EM Spencer, pp. 99-109. New York: Elsevier. Endocrinology J. Dev. Physiol.

    45. Welcome To GulfMD.com - The World Of Health, Progress And Hope
    What is intrauterine Growth Retardation ( IUGR Disproportionate short stature, commonlyreferred to as dwarfism, can manifest itself as shortlimbed dwarfism or
    http://www.gulfmd.com/endocranology - diabetes/growth_disorders.asp
    gulf MD Home Contact Us ... Advertise gulfMD Today Special Offers Home Discussion Forum Doctors Article ... Hospital Partner Program Search Your... Doctors in UAE Hospitals in UAE Clinics in UAE General Medic.. A - Z Disease List Emergency Numbers First Aid Hospitals/Associations Hospitals in Middle East Hospitals in USA World Wide Hospitals Medical Associations ... Other Health Links Your Health Child Care Men's Health Women's Health Food and Fitness ... Health Issues Alternative Medicine Ayurveda Homeopathy Quick Vote Is Online Classifieds Advt a good Sales strategy?
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    Growth Disorders
    What Are Growth Disorders?
    What is Human Growth Hormone (HGH) Deficiency?

    What is Cushing's Syndrome (Cortisol, Stress, Hormone Excess)?

    What is Hypothyroidism?
    ...
    Bone Disorders
    What Are Growth Disorders?
    There are many causes of growth failure in children. Some are constitutional, some are genetic, and some are the result of hormonal disorders. In some cases the growth disorder may be recognized at birth; in others, a parent may be concerned that the child is the shortest in the class, still wearing the same size clothing as last year, and growing less than two inches a year. In these cases, a thorough medical evaluation by a pediatric endocrinologist (or other growth specialist) is necessary to determine if there is a growth disorder affecting the child's development.
    Back To Top
    What is Human Growth Hormone (HGH) Deficiency?

    46. Silver-Russells Syndrom - Små Och Mindre Kända Handikappgrupper
    Russell A. A syndrome of intrauterine dwarfism recognizable at birth with craniofacialdysostosis, disproportionately short arms and other anomalities.
    http://www.sos.se/smkh/2001-29-128/2001-29-128.HTM
    Socialstyrelsen
    106 30 Stockholm
    e-post

    Socialstyrelsen klassificerar sin utgivning i olika dokumenttyper
    Silver-Russells syndrom
    Russell-Silvers syndrom
    Sjukdom/skada/diagnos
    Orsak till sjukdomen/skadan

    Symtom

    Diagnostik
    ...
    Databasreferenser
    Dokumentdatum: 2001-01-25
    HTML-version 1.0 Socialstyrelsen Detta är ett utdrag ur Socialstyrelsens kunskapsdatabas om små och mindre kända handikappgrupper. Med små och mindre kända handikappgrupper avses ovanliga sjukdomar/skador som leder till omfattande funktionshinder och som finns hos högst 100 personer per miljon invånare. Syftet med databasen är att ge aktuell information om små och mindre kända handikappgrupper och om det stöd och den service som dessa grupper behöver. För ytterligare information om aktuell diagnos hänvisas till informationsmaterial, litteratur och databaser som anges under resp diagnos.
    Sjukdom/skada/diagnos
    Orsak till sjukdomen/skadan
    Symtom
    Diagnostik
    Dessutom styrks diagnosen ytterligare om barnet har: 5. Krokiga lillfingrar.
    Praktiska tips
    Resurspersoner kerstin.albertsson-wikland@pediat.gu.se

    47. THE MERCK MANUAL, Sec. 19, Ch. 261, Congenital Anomalies
    Bony deformities and dwarfism are present in patients who survive infancy, but orlongitudinal limb deficiencies due to primary intrauterine growth inhibition
    http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section19/chapter261/261g.htm
    This Publication Is Searchable The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy Section 19. Pediatrics Chapter 261. Congenital Anomalies Topics [General] Congenital Heart Disease Pulmonary Vascular Disease Heart Failure ... Chromosomal Abnormalities
    Musculoskeletal Abnormalities
    Some important and common disorders of the newborn's musculoskeletal system are discussed below.
    CRANIOFACIAL ABNORMALITIES
    Various craniofacial abnormalities arise from maldevelopment of the 1st and 2nd visceral arches, which form the facial bones and ears during the 2nd mo of gestation. These malformations include cleft lip and cleft palate; Treacher Collins' (mandibulofacial dysostosis), Goldenhar's (oculoauriculovertebral dysplasia), Pierre Robin, and Waardenburg syndromes; hypertelorism; and external and middle ear deformities. The most common syndromes are described in Table 261-3. Most infants with craniofacial abnormalities have normal intelligence and development. Cleft lip and cleft palate are the most common 1st arch defects, occurring once in 700 to 800 births. Among the postulated causes are the use of benzodiazepines during early pregnancy. The cleft may vary from involvement of the soft palate only, to a complete cleft of the soft and hard palates, the alveolar process of the maxilla, and the lip. The mildest form is a bifid uvula.

    48. LebanonHealth Conditions / Diseases P
    Pregnancy). Pregnancy Complications intrauterine Growth (intrauterineGrowth Restriction). Problems). Pseudoachondraplasia (see dwarfism).
    http://www.lebanonhealth.com/condi/P.htm
    P
    Paget's Disease of the Bone (Osteitis Deformans)

    Pain, Back (See Back Problems
    Pain, Breast (See Breast Problems
    Pain, Chronic

    Pain, Menstrual (Dysmenorrhea, See Menstrual Problems
    Pancreatic Cancer

    Pancreatic Problems
    (Pancreatitis)
    Pancreatitis (See Pancreatic Problems
    Panic Attack

    Papilloma, Breast (See Breast Problems Paranoid Personality Disorder (See Personality Disorders Parkinson’s Disease Partial Seizures (see Seizures Patent Ductus Arteriosus (see Congenital Heart Defects Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Penile Cancer Penile Yeast Infection (Balanitis, See Yeast Infections Peptic Ulcers (Stomach and Duodenal) Pericarditis Periodontal Disease (See Gum Problems Peripheral Neuropathy Pernicious Anemia (Vitamin B -Deficiency Anemia, See Anemia Personality Disorders (Anti-Social, Avoidant, Borderline, Dependent, Histrionic, Narcissistic, Obsessive-Compulsive, Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal) Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Phenylketonuria (PKU) Phlebitis Phobias ... Pinched Nerve Pinkeye (Bacterial Conjunctivitis, See Conjunctivitis PKU (Phenylketonuria) Placenta Previa Plantar Fasciitis ... Poison Ivy, Poison Oak and Poison Sumac

    49. Loads Of Medical Links
    for growth related diseases dwarfism and skeletal dysplasia's, that works with MedicalSpecialists, information on dwarfism, Support. intrauterine Infections.
    http://www.angelfire.com/or2/ashlysworldofwonders/medicallinks.htm
    Loads of Medical Links
    Here you will find a large variety of
    medical resources for parenting your
    Special Needs children. You will find
    Links to dwarfism, diabetes, cancer
    rare disorders, metabolic diseases,
    gene replacement therapy, genetics
    musculoskeletal diseases, and more
    OBTAINING HEALTHCARE
    Social Security Online
    Did you know if you have a child with certain disabilities
    or conditions that's expected to last at minimum of a year
    you may be eligible for money benefits and if you qualify
    for even $1.00 your child receives State medical insurance To see a list of qualifying impairments and requirements Listing of Impairments Medical Guidelines Tricare, Military Health System Military health insurance for dependants further than 50 miles from a military hospital or clinic Federal Office of Child Support Enforcement Do you need help in getting your child support or asking the other parent to provide insurance NetLizard's Legal Research Center Search engine for Fa mily law and medical law State Children's Health Insurance Program Federal chip program allows families that don't qualify under poverty guidelines, to make more

    50. Heredity FRCC
    1. 2. 3. intrauterine. 4. Multifactorial inheritance. Breasts and or ovaries.dwarfism. Other congenital abnormalities. 2. Triple x. . . Infertility.
    http://www.angelfire.com/va/mikesimone/page17.html

    51. NSW Health - ICD-9-CM 240-279
    259.4 dwarfism, not elsewhere classified dwarfism NOS constitutional Excludesdwarfism achondroplastic (756.4) intrauterine (759.7) nutritional (263.2
    http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/public-health/icd/240-279.htm
    3. ENDOCRINE, NUTRITIONAL AND METABOLIC DISEASES, AND IMMUNITY DISORDERS (240-279)
    Excludes : endocrine and metabolic disturbances specific to the fetus and newborn (775.0-775.9) Note : All neoplasms, whether functionally active or not, are classified in Chapter 2. Codes in Chapter 3 (i.e., 242.8, 246.0, 251-253, 255-259) may be used to identify such functional activity associated with any neoplasm, or by ectopic endocrine tissue.
    DISORDERS OF THYROID GLAND (240-246)
    240 Simple and unspecified goiter
    • Goiter, specified as simple Any condition classifiable to 240.9, specified as simple
    • Goiter, unspecified Enlargement of thyroid Goiter or struma: NOS diffuse colloid endemic hyperplastic nontoxic (diffuse) parenchymatous sporadic Excludes : congenital (dyshormonogenic) goiter (246.1)
    241 Nontoxic nodular goiter
      Excludes : adenoma of thyroid (226) cystadenoma of thyroid (226)
    • Nontoxic uninodular goiter Thyroid nodule Uninodular goiter (nontoxic)
    • Nontoxic multinodular goiter Multinodular goiter (nontoxic)
    • Unspecified nontoxic nodular goiter Adenomatous goiter Nodular goiter (nontoxic) NOS Struma nodosa (simplex)
    242 Thyrotoxicosis with or without goiter
      Excludes : neonatal thyrotoxicosis (775.3) The following fifth-digit subclassification is for use with category 242:

    52. OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY-Objectives – 2001-2002
    congenital adrenal hyperplasia. thanatophoric dwarfism. cystic fibrosis. abruptioplacentae. intrauterine growth restriction. transient hypertension of pregnancy.
    http://www.unr.edu/med/dept/OBGYN/syllabus/OBGYNobjectives.html
    Return to the Table of Contents OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY-Objectives – 2002-2003 Each objective consists of three parts: terms and definitions, clinical conditions- diagnosis and treatment, and operations and procedures. The topics may be learned in any order. It is suggested that the objectives for each topic be reviewed prior to the reading assignment. Subsequently they should be reviewed and knowledge of each of the items confirmed. These objectives are condensed from the latest edition of Medical Student Educational Objectives published by the Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics. I. ABNORMAL UTERINE BLEEDING Definitions and Terms adenomyosis anovulation carcinoma of the endometrium submucous myoma menorrhagia metrorrhagia hypermenorrhea polymenorrhea Clinical Conditions- Diagnosis and Treatment hematologic disorders complications of pregnancy leiomyomata uteri endometrial hyperplasia menopausal bleeding precocious puberty Operations and Procedures Dilatation and curettage endometrial biopsy endometrial aspiration hysteroscopy endometrial ablation saline infused sonography II. AMENORRHEA

    53. ICD-9-CM From Code 250
    NOS; constitutional. Excludes dwarfism achondroplastic (756.4); intrauterine (759.7);nutritional (263.2); pituitary (253.3); renal (588.0); progeria (259.8). 259.8
    http://www.cpmc.columbia.edu/homepages/hripcsa/icd9/1tabular250.html
    DISEASES OF OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS (250-259)
    • 250 Diabetes mellitus
      • Excludes: gestational diabetes (648.8)
        • hyperglycemia NOS (790.6)
        • neonatal diabetes mellitus (775.1)
        • nonclinical diabetes (790.2)
        • that complicating pregnancy, childbirth, or the puerperium (648.0)
      • The following fifth-digit subclassification is for use with category 250:
        • 0 type II [non-insulin dependent type] [NIDDM type] [adult-onset type] or unspecified type, not stated as uncontrolled
        • 1 type I [insulin dependent type] [IDDM] [juvenile type], not stated as uncontrolled
        • 2 type II [non-insulin dependent type] [NIDDM type] [adult-onset type] or unspecified type, uncontrolled
        • 3 type I [insulin dependent type] [IDDM] [juvenile type], uncontrolled
        • 250.0 Diabetes mellitus without mention of complication
          • Diabetes mellitus without mention of complication or manifestation classifiable to 250.1-250.9
          • Diabetes (mellitus) NOS
        • 250.1 Diabetes with ketoacidosis
          • Diabetic:
            • acidosis without mention of coma
            • ketosis without mention of coma
          • 250.2 Diabetes with hyperosmolarity
            • Hyperosmolar (nonketotic) coma
          • 250.3 Diabetes with other coma

    54. Www.nber.org/mortality/1995/docs/ch03.txt
    classified 259.4 dwarfism, not elsewhere classified dwarfism NOS constitutionalExcludes dwarfism achondroplastic (756.4) intrauterine (759.7) nutritional
    http://www.nber.org/mortality/1995/docs/ch03.txt

    55. Estudio Colaborativo Latino Americano De Malformaciones Congénitas
    For families with children who have Russell Silver intrauterine growth retardation. ofPersons of Short Stature regroups people who have dwarfism and/or their
    http://eclamc.ioc.fiocruz.br/links_es_02_usa.htm
    USA D : Sindrome de Down): Search by specific disease (e.g. D : Down syndrome)

    56. Genetic Catalog - PRIVATE SYNDROMOLOGY
    intrauterine Growth Retardation fact sheet; intrauterine Drowth Retardation- Handbook online; dwarfism Resources - by Daniel D.Kennedy; Growth Deficiency
    http://www.rusmedserv.com/genetics/catalog/links89.htm
    PRIVATE SYNDROMOLOGY
    Behaviour Syndromology
    Syndromology of Macrosomy
    Syndromology of Mental Retardation
    Syndromology of Growth Retardations
    Familial Cancer Syndromes
    Craniosynostosis Syndromes
    Syndromic Deafness
    Overgrowth syndromes
    Oral Cleft Genetics-Syndromology
    CHROMOSOME SYNDROMES

    57. Approach To A Child With Short Stature (Pediatric Oncall)
    4) intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) 5) Genetic syndromes – common examples syndrome6) Inborn error of metabolism 7) Psychosocial dwarfism 8) Idiopathic
    http://www.pediatriconcall.com/fordoctor/DiseasesandCondition/approach_to_shorts
    Question of day Alternative Medicine Journals Queries ... Shopping Mall APPROACH TO A CHILD WITH SHORT STATURE UserName Password New Register Dr Swati Joshi,
    Lecturer (Endocrinology and Epilepsy)
    B J Wadia Hospital for Children,
    Mumbai.

    Growth is an important objective parameter of general health of a child.
    Definition: A child is considered short if :-
  • His height is less than 3 rd percentile or 2 standard deviations below the mean height for that age. Even if the height is within normal percentiles but growth velocity is consistently below 25 th percentile over 6-12 months of observation. If the patient is excessively short for the mid-parental height, though his absolute height may be within the normal percentiles.
  • Useful point to note : 80% of children with height less than 3SD below mean have pathologic Short Stature whereas 80% of children with height less than 2SD usually have normal variant Short Stature.
    • Height Age th percentile.

    58. The 18-23-week Scan - Chapter 10.02
    XXX, 47,XXY and 47,XYY), there is no significant change with maternal age and, sincethe rate of intrauterine lethality is Rarely, this is a sign of dwarfism.
    http://www.fetalmedicine.com/18-23scanbook/Chapter10/chap10-02.htm
    The 18-23-week scan
    RISK FOR CHROMOSOMAL DEFECTS
    Number of defects
    Ultrasound studies have demonstrated that major chromosomal defects are often associated with multiple fetal abnormalities. The overall risk for chromosomal defects increases with the total number of abnormalities that are identified. It is therefore recommended that, when an abnormality/marker is detected at routine ultrasound examination, a thorough check is made for the other features of the chromosomal defect(s) known to be associated with that marker; should additional abnormalities be identified, the risk is dramatically increased (Table 2). Table 2 Incidence of chromosomal defects in relation to number of sonographically detected abnormalities (Nicolaides et al., Lancet 1992;340:704-7) Abnormalities n Chromosomal defects 8 or more
    Major defects
    Minor defects or markers
    Association with maternal age and gestation
    Type of defect
    If there are minor defects, the risk for trisomy 21 is calculated by multiplying the background (maternal age- and gestation-related risk) by a factor depending on the specific defect. For the following conditions, there are sufficient data in the literature to estimate the risk factors. Nuchal edema or fold more than 6 mm This is the second-trimester form of nuchal translucency. It is found in about 0.5% of fetuses and it may be of no pathological significance. However, it is sometimes associated with chromosomal defects, cardiac anomalies, infection or genetic syndromes. For isolated nuchal edema, the risk for trisomy 21 may be ten-times the background risk.

    59. Prominent Congenital Defects In Nebraska Beef Cattle, G85-759-A
    dwarfism occurs in all breeds of cattle. It has been described as a genetic defectin many breeds, and intrauterine fetal infections with BVD and bluetongue
    http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/beef/g759.htm
    G85-759-A
    Prominent Congenital Defects in Nebraska Beef Cattle
    This NebGuide describes congenital defects that affect the economic value of beef cattle, and provides recommendations on how to minimize them in breeding programs. J. L. Johnson, DVM, Veterinary Pathologist (University of Nebraska)
    H. W. Leipold, DVM, Veterinary Pathologist (Kansas State University)
    Donald B. Hudson, DVM, Extension Veterinarian
    Previous Category Catalog Order Info
    Congenital defects are abnormalities of structure or function present at birth. They may be caused by genetic or environmental factors, or a combination of both. The causes of many defects remain unknown. Developmental defects may be lethal, semi-lethal, or compatible with life, causing very little effect or only aesthetic effect. With the increasing use of artificial insemination (AI) in cattle, defects are no longer rare occurrences and are important collectively to the cattle industry. Congenital defects cause economic losses by increasing perinatal calf mortality, decreasing maternal productivity, and decreasing the value of defective calves and their relatives. Susceptibility to injurious agents varies with fetal development and decreases with age. Before Day 14 of gestation in cattle (period of pre-attachment), the zygote or embryo is resistant to agents that produce the incidence of congenital malformations (teratogens), but is susceptible to genetic mutations and abnormality of chromosome numbers or structures (chromosomal aberrations). During the embryonic period (Days 14-42), the embryo is highly susceptible to teratogens, but this decreases with embryonic age as critical periods for the various organs are passed. The fetus (Day 42+) becomes increasingly resistant to teratogenic agents with age, except for the late differentiating structures, such as cerebellum, palate, and urogenital system.

    60. Center For Medical Genetics
    ultrasound examination should be made to exclude intrauterine growth retardation anencephaly,myelomeningocoele, achondroplasia and other dwarfism, spina bifida
    http://www.geneticstesting.com/ultrasound/

    Prenatal Genetic Screening
    First Trimester Second Trimester Amniocentesis Testing ...
    Miscarriage Evaluation
    Request more Information Physician Request Patient Request DadTest.com FAQ's ... Home
    ULTRASOUND SERVICES What are Obstetric Ultrasound Scans/Sonograms? What about Safety? It has been over 35 years since ultrasound was first used on pregnant women. Unlike X-rays, ionizing irradiation is not present and embryotoxic effects associated with such irradiation should not be relevant. The use of high intensity ultrasound is associated with the effects of "heating" which can be present with prolonged insonation in laboratory situations. Harmful effects in cells of experimental animals or humans however have not been demonstrated in the large amount of studies that have so far appeared in the medical literature purporting to the use of diagnostic ultrasound in the clinical setting. The greatest risks arising from the use of ultrasound are the possible over- and under- diagnosis brought about by inadequately trained staff, often working in relative isolation and using poor equipment. Why and when is Ultrasound used in Pregnancy?

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