61. JARE DATA REPORTS:Glaciology JARE DATA REPORTS glaciology. NO.17 (glaciology 1) Glaciological research programin Mizuho PlateauWest Enderby Land, Part 1, 1969-1971, ed. by T. Ishida. http://www.nipr.ac.jp/library/DRglac.html

JARE DATA REPORTS: Glaciology ISSN 0075-3343 Glaciology (Total-No., Pub.-Year) 1iNo.17, 1972j 2iNo.27, 1975j 3iNo.28, 1975j 4iNo.36, 1977j ... 30iNo.268, 2002j NO.17 (Glaciology 1) Glaciological research program in Mizuho Plateau-West Enderby Land, Part 1, 1969-1971, ed. by T. Ishida. 217p. November 1972. preface.....................i Introduction....................1 I. Position of Stations, Surface Elevation and thickness of the Ice Sheet, and Snow Temperature at 10m Depth in the Mizuho Plateau-West Enderby Land Area, East Antarctica, 1969-1971......................12 II. Net Accumulation of Snow by Stake Measurements in Mizuho Plateau, East Antarctica, 1968-1971................38 III. Surface Condition of the Ice Sheet in the Mizuho Plateau-West enderby Land Antarctica, 1968-1971...................48 IV. Stratigraphic Observation of the Surface Snow cover in Mizuho Plateau, East Antarctica, 1969-1970..................77 V. Stratigraphic Observation of the Surface Snow Cover in west enderby Land, East Antarctica, 1970-1971..............88 VI. Installation of a Triangulation Chain and a traverse Survey Line on the Ice Sheet in the Mizuho Plateau-west Enderby Land Area, East Antarctica, 1969-1970..................111

62. IGY Photo Gallery - Glaciology Sastrugi formations near the IGY Little America Station. Sastrugi is producedwhen soft snow is moved across hard snow by Antarctic winds. http://www.nas.edu/history/igy/glaciology.html

Sastrugi formations near the IGY Little America Station. Sastrugi is produced when soft snow is moved across hard snow by Antarctic winds. IGY glaciologist holding a snow core obtained from the hand auger dismantled beside him. The core was used for stratographic and crystalographic study, and chemical and radio-isotopic analysis. Examination of such cores, obtained at depths of up to 1000 feet, revealed much concerning the past climate, vegetation, amount of snowfall, and other features of the region. Auger set consisting of the auger, extensions, connecting pins and Harley pins, a brace and adapter, and a guide. This set was used to obtain cylindrically shaped samples, or "cores," of snow for stratographic, petrofabric, and isotopic analyses, as well as for density measurements. Glaciologist employing a rammsonde penetrometer to determine snow hardness. A weight on the rod is raised and dropped while a linear scale records the instrument's depth of penetration into the snow. Glaciologist examining the interior of a snow cave at Kainan Bay, Antarctica. Such caves are formed by the wind and the movement of the ice.

63. Glaciology glaciology Back toHydrology Research Earth Sciences Universityof Aarhus Contents Background Objectives Activities People http://www.geo.aau.dk/english/research/hydro/glacio/

Glaciology Back to: Hydrology Research Earth Sciences University of Aarhus Contents: Background Objectives Activities People ... Publications Background Glaciological research is focused on glaciers in Norway, Iceland and Greenland, because they are important in water power production, landscape formation and as indicators of climate change. There is a growing interest in knowledge about the snow- and ice-covered areas of the world and the role they play in global change and development. Variations in the amount of snow and ice and their relation to climatic change have especially attracted much attention recently. Objectives The main issues studied by the Glaciological Group are (i) measurement of mass balance and energy balance on glaciers in Norway and Greenland, (ii) glacier hydrological investigations of the internal drainage system of glaciers and snow using hydrochemistry and stable isotopes, (iii) mapping of surface change of glaciers using photogrammetric methods and radio-echo sounding of ice thickness, and (iv) measurements of ice movement to establish the relation between mass balance, ice movement and glacier change. Activities The activities are field based on glaciers in Norway, Iceland and Greenland in connection with international research programmes.

64. INSTAAR Glaciology Group http://tintin.colorado.edu/group/

65. Glaciology glaciology. Faculty Appointments. Office Phone. Email. Fahnestock, Mark, 301-405-5384,mark@atmos.umd.edu. Shuman, Christopher, 301-405-8291, shuman@buggam.umd.edu. http://www.atmos.umd.edu/research/glaciology.html

Meteorology Home Search Glaciology Office Phone E-mail Fahnestock, Mark mark@atmos.umd.edu Shuman, Christopher shuman@buggam.umd.edu A rapid expansion in measurements of the Earth's climate system has been made possible in recent decades by new and evolving technologies. This expansion of scientific observations has changed the focus of many earth science disciplines. It is no longer possible to view any part of the Earth system in an isolated context. As a result, efforts have become focused on complimentary, integrated use of data and models to investigate the complex interactions present in the system. Much of the polar work conducted at ESSIC , in concert with colleagues at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center , will concentrate on the expansion of the use of satellite and in-situ data to understand recent trends in climate related to sea ice extent and concentration as well as ice sheet mass balance and dynamics. The evolving focus of ice sheet research has in large part been driven by enhanced satellite-based measurement capabilities; this will continue with the launch of ICESAT/GLAS and with new, higher resolution optical and microwave sensors such as MODIS and AMSR on the EOS PM-1 platform. Given these efforts, a greatly expanded knowledge of the role of polar ice in global climate - past, present, and future - is likely. UM Home Directories Search Admissions ... Calendar Maintained by James Crawford Direct questions and comments to helper@atmos.umd.edu

66. Glaciology glaciology. see also Snow. 680 p. $195. © 19952002 2002-10-21 http//www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/books/books/glaciology.html. http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/books/Glaciology.html

Glaciology see also Snow Benn, Douglas I. Glaciers and Glaciation. New York: Wiley, 1998. 736 p. $45. Colbeck, Samuel C. Dynamics of Snow and Ice Masses. New York: Academic Press, 1980. 468 p. $?. Quaternary and Glacial Geology. New York: Wiley, 1996. $95. Erickson, Jon. Glacial Geology: How Ice Shapes the Land. Facts of File. 256 p. $26.95. Flint, Richard Foster. Glacial and Quaternary Geology. New York: Wiley, 1971. $?. Hambrey, M. and Alean, J. Glaciers. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 207 p. $17.95. Lliboutry, L. Paris, Masson, 1964. Lliboutry, L. Paris, Masson, 1965. 642 p. Paterson, W.S.B. The Physics of Glaciers, 3rd ed. Pergamon Press, 1994. 480 p. $55.95. Tingey, Robert J. (Ed.). The Geology of Antarctica. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1991. 680 p. $195. http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/books/books/Glaciology.html

67. Climatology And Glaciology Programme Engine to find a contribution. Back to Programme Overview. Climatologyand glaciology, ERE1. Modelling the scientific and socioeconomic http://www.cosis.net/members/meetings/programme/view.php?prg=10

68. Glaciology-Related Sites URL's and Links to other glaciologyrelated WWW sites. University of Wales,Aberystwith, UK Centre for glaciology http//www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww.html. http://web.pdx.edu/~chulbe/glaciolinks.html

URL's and Links to other glaciology-related WWW sites last updated: 18 June 2001 This list includes links to: Institutes and Universities Data Depositories Scientific Societies other than the IGS Journals and Publishers Institutes and Universities Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany In German: http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/index-d.html In English: http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/index-e.html ARCUS, Arctic Research Consortium of the United States University of Alaska, Fairbanks http://www.arcus.org/ University of Innsbruck, Austria Institute of Geography http://geowww.uibk.ac.at/research/ Institute for Meteorology and Geophysics, Remote Sensing Group http://dude.uibk.ac.at Belgian Scientific Research Programme on the Antarctic http://www.belspo.be/antar/ Brazilian Glaciological Research Program in Antarctica Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul http://www.mct.gov.br/clima/ingles/comunic_old/glaciolo.htm British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, England, U.K. http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/

69. Siden Er Flyttet - Page Moved glaciology GROUP, OVERVIEW. Back, What we do! Introduction. The glaciologygroup mostly carries out research at the greenland ice sheet margin. http://www.geus.dk/departments/environ-hist-climate/resaerch-themes/env-cli-glac

The page you have found has been moved. The new location is: www.geus.dk/departments/quaternary-marine-geol/research-themes/env-cli-res-gr-glaciology-uk.htm You will be redirected in approximately 10 sec. Sorry for the inconvenience. © Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland - GEUS - Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 København K - Tel.: +45 38142001 - Fax: +45 38142050 - E-mail: geus@geus.dk

70. Glaciology glaciology GROUP, OVERVIEW. BACK, What we do! Introduction. The glaciologygroup mostly carries out research at the greenland ice sheet margin. http://www.geus.dk/departments/quaternary-marine-geol/research-themes/env-cli-re

www.geus.dk Departments Quaternary geology Research topics and themes > This page Printer friendly Bookmark QUATERNARY GEOLOGY GLACIOLOGY GROUP, OVERVIEW What we do! Edited by: Niels E. Poulsen, GEUS Aspects of GEUS glaciological research. People ceb@geus.dk Ole B. Olsen - obo@geus.dk apa@geus.dk Steffen Podlech - spo@geus.dk Introduction The glaciology group mostly carries out research at the greenland ice sheet margin. In this area studies of energy balance, of ice dynamics, of surface properties by means of remote sensing is studied. This is in order to provide knowldege about the ice sheets sensitivity to climate change and to sea level. Research Programme, Imersuaq The project aims at a more precise estimate of the contribution from the icesheet to hydropower potentials, based on the largest bassin in Western Greenland 'Tasersiaq', situated between the cities of Maniitsoq and Kangerlussuaq [Top] Last modified: 11. September 2000 © Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland - GEUS Øster Voldgade 10, 1350 København K - Tel.: +45 38142000 - Fax: +45 38142050 - E-mail:

71. Fox Glacier Franz Josef Glacier New Zealand Glaciology The Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers cut through dramatic glacial valleysto flow into temperate rainforest. While many glaciers world http://www.glaciercountry.co.nz/glaciers.asp

Glaciology Fox Glacier Franz Josef Glacier The Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers cut through dramatic glacial valleys to flow into temperate rainforest. While many glaciers world-wide have been retreating, these glaciers still flow almost to sea level, making them unique relics of the last Ice Age. South-Westland lies in the path of a band of wind known as the 'roaring forties'. The weather that flows on to the West Coast is forced to rise over the Southern Alps, thereby cooling and dropping most of its moisture as rain and snow. This process causes approximately 30 metres of snow to fall on the neve, or catchment area of the glacier every year. Snow that is compacted on the neve forms blue glacier ice that is funnelled down the valleys of the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. This flows under its own momentum, forming these 'rivers of ice' which are easily accessible from the Waiho (Franz Josef) and Cook (Fox) river beds. Although much melt occurs from the surface of the glaciers at lower elevations (the ablation zone), this high snowfall continues to push ice down the valleys at very high rates. This is aided by basal sliding, caused by a layer of water beneath the glaciers, formed by the weight of the ice pushing against the valley floor. Both of these factors cause the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers to have flow rates that are up to 10 times faster than most valley glaciers. The glaciers flow over large bedrock steps on the valley floors. This causes the ice to extend and break up, forming steep icefalls that are mazes of crevasses and pinnacles of ice. Spectacular views of this dramatic landscape are gained from short valley walks to the Franz Josef and Fox Glacier terminal faces, or by taking a guided walk on to the ice. Either option will provide any visitor with a unique glacier experience.

72. Glaciology glaciology in Iceland. By Patrick M. Colgan, Northeastern University. Icelandhas always been a place where glaciology is more than an academic subject. http://www.casdn.neu.edu/~geology/department/staff/colgan/class_notes/1715/glaci

Glaciology in Iceland By Patrick M. Colgan, Northeastern University Introduction Iceland has always been a place where glaciology is more than an academic subject. Unfortunately, Icelanders haven't received much credit for their early contributions to glaciology, probably because their scientific writings were not widely read. Nowhere else though, have a literate people lived in such close proximity to sea ice and ice caps as the Icelander has. Because of this, Icelanders possess a practical knowledge of glaciers, and many principles of glaciology were probably apparent to them several hundred years ago (Bj rnsson, 1988). The settler Thordur Illugi built his farm near the snout of Brei An outline of Glaciological research in Iceland 1200 A.D. to the present The following is a timeline of glaciological research in Iceland. Most of the material for this summary was taken from Bj rnsson (1988) and Bardarson (1971). - Saxo writes his Danish history in which he describes sea ice and ice caps in Iceland. This is the first written record of Icelandic glaciers. He also describes the movement of glaciers and how the bodies of people who fall into crevasses were later found melting out at the ice margin. This phenomena is reflected in an Icelandic expression, "The glacier delivers back what it takes." - Bishop Gudbrandur Thorlaksson creates the first map of Iceland to show ice caps and glaciers (see Figure 1).

73. Glaciology In Geology Products, Software and Data. Images. Areas of Interest. glaciology. URLhttp//wwwflag.wr.usgs.gov/USGSFlag/Contacts/topics/glaciology.html. http://wwwflag.wr.usgs.gov/USGSFlag/Contacts/topics/glaciology.html

U. S. Geological Survey U. S. Geological Survey Flagstaff Field Center What's New ... Areas of Interest Glaciology Lucchitta, Baerbel Elston, Donald Kargel, Jeffrey Kieffer, Hugh ... Raup, Bruce URL: http://wwwflag.wr.usgs.gov/USGSFlag/Contacts/topics/glaciology.html United States Geological Survey, 2255 N Gemini Drive, Flagstaff, Arizona 86001 (webmaster@flagmail.wr.usgs.gov) Last updated: November 24, 1997

74. GEOMORPHOLOGY, GLACIOLOGY & QUATERNARY WEB LINKS (T. A. Brennand) Drift Prospecting. glaciology and Ice Sheet Modelling. BC Weather News. Backto INDEX Geomorphology, glaciology Quaternary Organizations. Canadian. http://www.sfu.ca/~tabrenna/links.htm

GEOMORPHOLOGY, GLACIOLOGY Thanks to the CGRG and CANQUA web sites for much of this information. INDEX Bibliographic Databases Virtual field Trips British Columbia Geoscience Educational Resources for the Geosciences ... Geoscience Careers Bibliographic Databases CGRG Bibliography Back to INDEX Virtual Field Trips Canadian Landforms and Landscapes Point Grey / Wreck Beach Field Trip Tour Canada from Space Jasper National Park ... Geomorphology from Space (image rich but slow) Images illustrating principles of geomorphology Environmental Atlas of the Beaufort Coastlands Geoscape Quebec Geoscape Toronto ... Back to INDEX An illustrated Glossary of Glacial Landforms A Dictionary of Drumlins and subglacial meltwater floods Rogen moraine and subglacial meltwater floods The Bridgenorth Esker Oak Ridges Moraine Southern Manitoba DEM Surficial Materials of Canada ... Drift Prospecting Glaciology and Ice Sheet Modelling Glaciology Links (IGS) All About Glaciers (NSIDC) World Glacier Monioring Service Glacier Images (University of Cincinnati) Measuring a moving glacier Alpine Glacier Distribution ... Greenland Ice Core Project (GRIP) Southern Laurentide Ice-Sheet Project (SLIP) Climate Change Climate Change in Canada Mapping Ancient History Climate Change (GSC-TSD) EPA's Global Warming Site ... Global Warming and Sea Level Rise (lecture by William A. Gough)

75. Glaciology Home Page Welcome to Glacier and Ice Sheet Research Group Japanese version is HERE http://glacier.lowtem.hokudai.ac.jp/index-e.htm

Welcome to Glacier and Ice Sheet Research Group Japanese version is HERE news bbs Seminar ... Reading Count program:03/15,10:03 abstract:03/15,19:03 program:12/14,16:12 abstract:12/11,12:12 NSIDC Glaciers in the News Link Members Product from our group Feb. 21 Glaciers in the World Portable Ice Radar Portable Ice coring drill Hokkaido University Institute of Low Temperature Science Cryosphere Science Research Section Ongoing projects Glacier Research Project in Patagonia (grpp) Apr.30 Glaciological Study in Kamchatka Jun 30 Dome-Fuji Deep Drilling Project, Antarctica( Nationalinstitute of Polar Research Fifth Phase of Antarctic Glaciological Study( Nationalinstitute of Polar Research Glaciological Study on Perennial Snow Patch Hisago Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University N19, W8, Sapporo 060-0819 Japan Web-admin email address: shiraiwa@pop.lowtem.hokudai.ac.jp

76. Glaciology Home Page Welcome to Glacier and Ice Sheet Research Group. English version is HERE. http://glacier.lowtem.hokudai.ac.jp/

Welcome to Glacier and Ice Sheet Research Group. English version is HERE ƒjƒ [ƒX ƒOƒ‹[ƒv“àŒfŽ¦” ŽGŽ‰ï ƒAƒNƒZƒX” –k‘å“àŒÀ’è NSIDC‚Ì•X‰Í‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚éƒjƒ [ƒX ƒŠƒ“ƒN ƒƒ“ƒo[ –kŠC“¹‘åŠw ... ’ቷ‰ÈŠwŒ¤‹†Š @•X‰Í•X°Œ¤‹†ƒOƒ‹[ƒv •X‰Í•X°ƒOƒ‹[ƒv‚̃vƒƒ_ƒNƒg Feb. 21 ¢ŠE‚Ì•X‰Í ‰Â”ÀŒ^•XŒú’T¸ƒŒ[ƒ_ ó‘wŒ@íƒhƒŠƒ‹ FŽRŠx’n‚Ì•X‰Í‚â‹É’n•X° Å‹ß‚ÌŒ»’n’²¸EŠÏ‘ª‚̃tƒB[ƒ‹ƒh ƒJƒ€ƒ`ƒƒƒcƒJ”¼“‡ Jun. 30 ƒpƒ^ƒSƒjƒA Apr.30 –kŠC“¹‘åáŽR –k‹ÉEƒAƒ“ƒfƒXEƒAƒ‰ƒXƒJEƒVƒxƒŠƒA“™ •Ï“®Žj‚Æ’nˆæ« Œ»’n’²¸EŠÏ‘ª •XƒRƒA‰ðÍ ”’lŽÀŒ± ‰»Šw•ªÍ “üŠwŠó–]‚Ì‚Ý‚È‚³‚ñ‚Ö §060-0819@ŽD–yŽs–k‹æ@–k19ð¼8’š–Ú –kŠC“¹‘åŠw‘åŠw@’ቷ‰ÈŠwŒ¤‹†Š Š¦—â—¤ˆæ‰ÈŠw•”–å@•X‰Í•X°Œ¤‹†ƒOƒ‹[ƒv ŠÇ—ŽÒ(shiraiwa@pop.lowtem.hokudai.ac.jp)‚ւ̈ӌ©EŽ¿–â‚Í “dŽqƒ[ƒ‹ ‚Å‚¨Šè‚¢‚µ‚Ü‚·B

77. TROPICAL GLACIOLOGY GROUP (Innsbruck) TROPICAL. glaciology GROUP. INNSBRUCK UNIVERSITY. HOME. In the lowlatitudes, seasonal thermal conditions are highly homogeneous but http://geowww.uibk.ac.at/glacio/

TROPICAL GLACIOLOGY GROUP INNSBRUCK UNIVERSITY HOME In the low latitudes, seasonal thermal conditions are highly homogeneous but the oscillation of global circulation features gives reason to a more or less pronounced seasonality in moisture advection and air humidity. Inter-annual variations in both amplitude and length of each season are marked. Analysis of modern glacier fluctuations as well as energy balance studies on tropical mountains indicate the strong impact of variations in air humidity on glacier ablation. Studying low latitude glaciers opens the view to a variety of climate variables and to a broad spectrum of scales. Micrometeorological processes are driven by air humidity related variables to a great extent. On a regional scale, the dry season´s runoff is limited to glacier melt in many cases. This, in turn, is reduced due to strong sublimation. Conclusions on climate and climate change are of global view. MEMBERS RESEARCH PARTNERS PUBLICATIONS ... Institute for Geography , University of Innsbruck last modification: Thursday, 7-Nov-2002 19:46:58 CET

78. Publications Tropical Glaciology Group TROPICAL. glaciology GROUP. INNSBRUCK UNIVERSITY. 2001, Kaser, G. (2001) Glacierclimateinteraction at low latitudes. Journal of glaciology, 47(157), 195-204. http://geowww.uibk.ac.at/glacio/LITERATUR/

TROPICAL GLACIOLOGY GROUP INNSBRUCK UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS Georges, C. (2003): The 20 th Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. , submitted. Abstract Kaser, G., C. Georges, I. Juen, and T. Mölg (2003): Low-latitude glaciers: Unique global climate indicators and essential contributors to regional fresh water supply. A conceptual approach. In: Huber, U., H. K. M. Bugmann, and M. A. Reasoner ( eds. Global Change and Mountain Regions: A State of Knowledge Overview . Kluwer: New York, in press. Full text Kaser, G., D.R. Hardy, T. Mölg, and R.S. Bradley (2003): Modern glacier retreat on Kilimanjaro as evidence of climate change: Observations and facts. International Journal of Climatology , submitted. Abstract Full text Kaser, G., I. Juen, C. Georges, J. Gomez, and W. Tamayo (2003): The impact of glaciers on the runoff and the reconstruction of mass balance history from hydrological data in the tropical Cordillera Blanca, Perú. Journal of Hydrology , accepted. Abstract Full text Mölg, T., D.R. Hardy, and G. Kaser (2003): Solar radiation-maintained glacier recession on Kilimanjaro drawn from combined ice-radiation geometry modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research , submitted.

79. Glaciology Glaciological research. Glacier flow. Possibly the most interestingdynamical phenomenon is the glacier surge, a relaxation oscillation http://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/~fowler/research/glaciology.html

Glaciological research Glacier flow Possibly the most interesting dynamical phenomenon is the glacier surge, a relaxation oscillation typified by the behaviour of the Variegated glacier (see the description in Paterson's book, The Physics of Glaciers). Normally, people say surging is unexplained, but this is not quite right. You can explain surging behaviour via a multi-valued sliding law, and it is possible to obtain such laws from realistic theories of hard bed sliding (see my 1987 JGR paper, cited below). The outstanding problem here is to describe how the drainage transition is effected in a three-dimensional geometry. I think this is a major control on the size of the surge. For the other `type' of surging glacier, the sub-polar (or polythermal) Trapridge, thermally controlled and sliding over till, the overall mechanism may be similar, though the details would be very different. The situation looks a bit like the ice sheet surge theory developed by Doug MacAyeal (see also Fowler and Johnson 1995, etc.). Ice sheet dynamics At the large scale, ice sheet modelling is probably in quite good shape. At the small to medium scale, however, this is less obviously true. The apparent occurrence of massive surges of the Hudson Strait ice stream of the Laurentide ice sheet in the last ice age (causing Heinrich events) must depend on the interplay between basal sliding and basal drainage, and modelling this is still at a rudimentary stage. Nor is it clear how such drainage theories will be included in the next generation of large ice sheet models.

80. Document Sans Titre They permit to study transfer functions between air and snow. IFRTP programmesin glaciology. Internal Geophysics. glaciology. Oceanography. Earth Biology. http://www.ifremer.fr/ifrtp/wwwenglish/pages/glacio.html

Science in the polar regions Scientific subjects Programmes 99/2000 External Geophysics In both poles, the icecaps contain earth's climatic archives, such as gases, dust and aerosols confined in successive snow layers. Deep ice-corings permit to collect these archives. In Antarctica, France is involved in two ice-coring programmes, Vostok and Dome C, which started in 1997 (EPICA Programme). The collected data may permit to reconstruct the climate history over 400,000 years. Shallow ice-corings are also carried out in Antarctica during outdoor traverses. They permit to study transfer functions between air and snow. IFRTP programmes in glaciology Internal Geophysics Upper layers of the atmosphere Lower layers of the atmosphere Glaciology Oceanography Earth Biology Marine Biology Medicine/ Psychology ... Social science

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