21. Khorezmi in the twelfth century by the West, when Adelard de Bath (who has been called thefirst english scientist, 1080 1160), gerard of cremona (Italy, 1117 - 1187 http://sinetgy.org/disc2000/khorezmi/

Information about the word Algorithm 14th International Symposium on DIStributed Computing (DISC 2000) October 4-6, 2000 Toledo, Spain http://sinetgy.org/disc2000 News Registration Payment ... Jeff Miller The origin of the word 'Algorithm' The word "algorithm" itself is quite interesting; at first glance it may look as though someone intended to write "logarithm" but jumbled up the first four letters. The word did not appear in Webster's New World Dictionary as late as 1957; we find only the older form "algorism" with its ancient meaning, i.e., the process of doing arithmetic using Arabic numerals. In the middle ages, abacists computed on the abacus and algorists computed by algorism. Following the middle ages, the origin of this word was in doubt, and early linguists attempted to guess at its derivation by making combinations like algiros [painful] + arithmos Kitab al jabr w'al'muqabala ("Rules of restoration and reduction"); another word, "algebra," stems from the title of his book, although the book wasn't really very algebraic. Gradually the form and meaning of "algorism" became corrupted; as explained by the Oxford English Dictionary, the word was "erroneously refashioned" by "learned confusion" with the word

22. Greek Mathematics And Its Modern Heirs (cont.) Vat. lat. 2056 fols. 45 verso46 recto, fols. 87 verso-88 recto math10a NS.09. Ptolemy,Almagest. In Latin, Translated by gerard of cremona, Thirteenth century http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/Greek_math2.ht

Greek Mathematics and its Modern Heirs (Cont.) Classical Roots of the Scientific Revolution Astronomical-Mathematical Collection In Greek, Tenth century This is the oldest and best manuscript of a collection of early Greek astronomical works, mostly elementary, by Autolycus, Euclid, Aristarchus, Hypsicles, and Theodosius, as well as mathematical works. The most interesting, really curious, of these is Aristarchus's "On the Distances and Sizes of the Sun and Moon," in which he shows that the sun is between 18 and 20 times the distance of the moon. Shown here is Proposition 13, with many scholia, concerned with the ratio to the diameters of the moon and sun of the line subtending the arc dividing the light and dark portions of the moon in a lunar eclipse. Vat. gr. 204 fol. 116 recto math06 NS.02 Apollonius, Conics In Greek, 1536 Apollonius's "Conics," written about 200 B.C., on conic sections, the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, is the most complex and difficult single work of all Greek mathematics and was all but unknown in the west until the fifteenth century. This magnificent copy, probably the most elegant of all Greek mathematical manuscripts, was made in 1536 for Pope Paul III. The pages on display show the particularly elaborate figures illustrating Propositions 2-4 of Book III on the equality of areas of triangles and quadrilaterals formed by tangents and diameters of conics, and by tangents and lines parallel to the tangents.

23. Medicine Transformed Avicenna (alHusain b. Abdallah Ibn Sina, d. 1037), Avicennae canonis libri.In Latin, translated from Arabic by gerard of cremona, Fourteenth century http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/f-medicine_bio/Medicine_2.ht

Medicine Transformed Classical Texts and Modern Anatomists The Renaissance saw new forms of medical study flourish at Rome. Scholars like Raphael's friend Marco Fabio Calvo studied the ancient medical works attributed to Hippocrates. These had been known only in part in the Middle Ages. Read as a whole (and translated into Latin), they offered an important new model for medicine based on close observation and unemotional, precise case histories (of which the Hippocratic texts contained a good many). Anatomists like Juan Valverde de Amusco and Bartolomeo Eustachi followed the lead of Andreas Vesalius, basing their accounts of human bones and blood vessels on the direct evidence they found by dissection, and publishing their results, magnificently illustrated, as improvements on Vesalius's work. Avicenna (al-Husain b. Abdallah Ibn Sina, d. 1037), Avicennae canonis libri In Latin, translated from Arabic by Gerard of Cremona, Fourteenth century The papal library also acquired copies of standard medical works used in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Portions of the twelfth-century Latin translation of Avicenna's medical encyclopedia were used as textbooks in universities, and the work as a whole served as a medical reference tool. In this copy, numerous miniatures vividly depict patient problems with which the medical practitioner was likely to be confronted. Here a patient has hemorrhoids. Urb. lat. 241 fol. 280 recto medbio07 NAN.01

24. Greek Mathematics And Its Modern Heirs (cont.) math10b fols. 87 verso88 recto. Ptolemy, Almagest. In Latin, Translatedby gerard of cremona, Thirteenth century The most important http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/SDG/Experimental/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathemat

Greek Mathematics and its Modern Heirs (Cont.) Classical Roots of the Scientific Revolution Astronomical-Mathematical Collection In Greek, Tenth century This is the oldest and best manuscript of a collection of early Greek astronomical works, mostly elementary, by Autolycus, Euclid, Aristarchus, Hypsicles, and Theodosius, as well as mathematical works. The most interesting, really curious, of these is Aristarchus's "On the Distances and Sizes of the Sun and Moon," in which he shows that the sun is between 18 and 20 times the distance of the moon. Shown here is Proposition 13, with many scholia, concerned with the ratio to the diameters of the moon and sun of the line subtending the arc dividing the light and dark portions of the moon in a lunar eclipse. Vat. gr. 204 fol. 116 recto math06 NS.02 Apollonius, Conics In Greek, 1536 Apollonius's "Conics," written about 200 B.C., on conic sections, the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, is the most complex and difficult single work of all Greek mathematics and was all but unknown in the west until the fifteenth century. This magnificent copy, probably the most elegant of all Greek mathematical manuscripts, was made in 1536 for Pope Paul III. The pages on display show the particularly elaborate figures illustrating Propositions 2-4 of Book III on the equality of areas of triangles and quadrilaterals formed by tangents and diameters of conics, and by tangents and lines parallel to the tangents.

25. Translating Aristotle Beginning with the reconquest of Toledo in 1085 and Sicily in 1091, western scholars(such as gerard of cremona, d. 1187) began to encounter these works and http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath219/kmath219.htm

Translating Aristotle Of the writings attributed to Aristotle (384-322 BC), the polished essays and dialogues which he intended for publication have been almost completely lost, with the exception of a few fragments. The great body of Aristotle's thought that has come down to us is in the form of "treatise" on various subjects, such as logic, physics, ethics, psychology, biology, and politics. It seems that these treatise began as notes on (or summaries of) Aristotle's lectures at the Lyceum in Athens. He continued to edit and revise them throughout his life, as his views evolved, but never brought them to a state of completion for publication. Subsequently they were edited and organized into "books" by his students, and then the whole corpus was transmitted through a series of transcribers, translators, and commentators. In 1204 the great Byzantine capital of Constantinople was captured by western armies during the 4th crusade, and western scholars gained access to Greek texts that were much closer to Aristotle's original writings. Around 1265, the Flemish Dominican William of Moerbeke (1215-1286) and other scholars translated these Greek texts into Latin (which can almost be done word-for-word, given the structural similarity between the two languages), and Thomas Aquinas undertook to integrate and reconcile the Aristotelian principles of reason and rational thought with Christian theology, resulting in his monumental Summa teologica . The view of Aristotle as the indisputable epitome of reason dates from this time, and held sway for about 250 years, until being superceded by the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution, all of which were, in some measure, reactions against Aristotelian thought. Today we often find Aristotle cited, especially in the sciences, as an example of erroneous thinking.

26. Medieval Geomancy: Annotated Bibliography libros tres, and Quaestiones geomantiae Alfakini, here attributed to Platon de Tivolibut, according to Charmasson, based on the treatise of gerard of cremona. http://www.princeton.edu/~ezb/geomancy/geobiblio.html

Annotated Bibliography To the best of my knowledge, none of the medieval treatises on geomancy are available in modern English, nor do I know of any scholarly editions of the texts, with the two exceptions noted below. Primary Sources Burnett, C.S.F. "What is the Experimentarius of Bernardus Silvestris? A preliminary survey of the material." xliv (1977): 79-125. [Reprinted in Magic and divination in the Middle Ages . Variorum Collected Studies Series CS557, 1996.] Includes an edition of the "Experimentarius" of Bernardus Silvestris. The "Experimentarius" describes a medieval predictive technique based on geomancy but more arbitrary. Cattan, Christofe de. Paris: Gilles Gilles, 1558. A book-length treatise on geomancy, with examples of geomantic tableaux cast by Cattan for his acquaintances at the French court. The text describes the method of casting the points and forming the figures; discusses the meanings of the figures and their correspondences with elements, animals, planets, etc.; summarizes the questions appropriate to each house (with examples); and thoroughly covers the various ways to interpret the tableau. Fasciculus geomanticus . Verona: 1704. This compilation of Latin treatises on geomancy includes, among others, Robert Fludd's

27. Mathematics book of Euclid. The latter's contribution was translated into Latinby gerard of cremona and edited by H. Suter in 1907. Ibrahim Ibn http://jews-for-allah.org/Why-Believe-in-Allah/math.htm

MATHEMATICS Muslims have made immense contributions to almost all branches of the sciences and arts, but mathematics was their favourite subject and its development owes a great deal to the genius of Arab and persian scholars. The advancement in different branches of mathematical science commenced during the Caliphate of Omayyads, and Hajjaj bin Yusuf, who was himself a translator of Euclid as well as a great patron of mathematicians. Translations Arithmetic Arabs were the founders of every day arithmetic and taught the use of ciphers to the world. Musa al-Khwarizmi (780850 A.D.) a native of Khwarizm, who lived in the reign of Mamun-ar-Rashid, was one of the greatest mathematicians of all times. He composed the oldest Islamic works on arithmetic and algebra which were the principal source of knowledge on the subject for a fairly long time. George Sarton pays glowing tribute to this outstanding Muslim mathematician and considers him "one of the greatest scientists of his race and the greatest of his time".' He systematised Greek and Hindu mathematical knowledge and profoundly influenced mathematical thought during mediaeval times. He championed the use of Hindu numerals and has the distinction of being the author of the oldest Arabic work on arithmetic known as Kitab-ul Jama wat Tafriq. The original version of this work has disappeared but its Latin translation Trattati a" Arithmetic edited by Bon Compagni in 1157 at Rome is still in existence. Al-Nasavi is the author of Abnugna Fil Hissab Al-Kindi short extracts of which were published by F. Woepeke in the journal Asiatique in 1863. His arithmetic explains the division of fractions and the extraction of square and cubic roots in an almost modern manner. He introduced the decimal system in place of sexagesimal system.

28. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: History Of Physics Moved by a desire to read and translate Ptolemy's immortal work, gerard of cremona(d. 1187) left Italy and went to Toledo, eventually making the translation http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~sungook/hps280/duhem.htm

A B C D ... P History of Physics Handbook of Christian Apologetics: Hundreds of Answers to Crucial Questions By Peter Kreeft and Ronald K. Tacelli. Sensible and concise, witty and wise, the authors offer compelling arguments for and defenses of every aspect of Christian belief, including faith and reason, God's nature, creation and evolution, providence and free will, miracles, the problem of evil, the Bible's historical reality, Christianity and other religions, and objective truths. More.... Find this: any language English Chinese Czech Danish Dutch Estonian Finnish French German Greek Hebrew Hungarian Icelandic Italian Japanese Korean Latvian Lithuanian Norwegian Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Spanish Swedish Special offer for New Advent readers: Our Family Prayer Book History of Physics The subject will be treated under the following heads: ... IV. Arabian Tradition and Latin Scholasticism; V. The Science of Observation and Its Progress Astronomers The Statics of Jordanus Thierry of Freiberg Pierre of Maricourt; VI. The Articles of Paris (1277) Possibility of Vacuum;

29. Translators Of Scientific Knowledge In The Middle Ages A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it fromall over Europe, were gerard of cremona (1117 1187) and John of Seville. http://cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl3.html

TRANSLATORS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES Dr. A. Zahoor Full Article in the E-Book By the tenth century, the intellectual superiority of the Arabs (Muslims) was recognized in Europe. The first Christian to take up the torch of learning was Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert, d. 1003 AD). He introduced the Arab astronomy and mathematics, and Arabic numerals in place of the clumsy Roman ones. He was followed by many, especially Constantinus Africanus in the eleventh century, and Bishop Raymond (Raimundo) in the twelfth century. As early as eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe. Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter.

30. Museo Della Specola, Bologna - Storia Cap. 4 Johannes de ;Luna (XII cen), or as Liber aggregationis scientiae stellarum et deprincipiis coelestium motuum in the translation by gerard of cremona (11141187 http://www.bo.astro.it/dip/Museum/english/sto1_04.html

4 - The origins of the teaching of Astronomy. We do not know when exactly Astronomy was first taught at the University of Bologna but, at about the same time as teacher Moneta was making his comments on Aristotle, we find in Bologna the person who would become the most famous astrologer of his time: Guido Bonatti (beginning XIII cen.- c.1296). We do in fact know that in 1233 he was engaged in a public debate in Bologna with friar Giovanni Schio da Vicenza (?-1260), a vigorous opponent of astrology Guido Bonatti left us an astrological compilation, entitled Decem continens tractatus astronomiae , which survives in a large number of codices and which was printed three times: in 1491, in 1506 and in 1550. The book was written shortly after 1277 when the author, who died in 1296 or 1297, was already advanced in age; one may assume therefore that it reflected more the knowledge of astronomy in Italy in the first half of the XIIIth century than in the times when the old author drafted the text that has come down to us. In Bonatti’s treatise the section devoted to mathematical astronomy is rather short. He lays out basic ideas regarding the equator, the ecliptic, the altazimuth coordinates, Ptolemy’s system of deferents and epicycles and illustrates how these can explain the phenomena of station and retrogradation of the planets. Bonatti ends the section: "

31. The Influence Of Ibn Sina And Razi Some time between 1170 and his death in 1187 gerard of cremona, the greatest ofthe Toledo translators, made the first translation into Latin of the Canon of http://www.iranian.com/Feb97/History/Avicenna/Avicenna.shtml

From "A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate" by Cyril Elgood (Cambridge University Press, London, 1952). Elgood, who was "Physician to H.B.M. Legation, Tehran, ,Perssia" points out in his introduction that he has used the terms Arabic and Persian medicine indiscriminately in writing about the Islamic period. (Page V) No other country in Europe, Asia or Africa seems to inspire writers as does Iran. Light works of travel and heavy books on more or less obscure subjects are printed and published by the score. Yet no complete history of medicine in Iran, that part of the Middle East formerly called Persia, has up until now been attempted. It is strange, for Persia has played as important a part in the world's history of medicine as have Persian poetry and Persian miniatures in the world's history of literature and art. Of the three, I think medicine has played the greatest part. This subject has not, of course, been entirely neglected. Nevertheless, more remains, as Professor Browne pointed out many years ago, to be accomplished in this branch of oriental studies than in any other of equal importance. A few Arabists have dealt with some of the Persian physicians who wrote in Arabic. These are, it is true, the greatest of the Persian School of Medicine.

32. Islamset - Islamic Medicine In The Kingdom Of Aragon In The Early Fourteenth Cen the king placed so much store can only have been Avicenna's Canon, the great medicalencyclopedia of Ibn Sina translated into Latin by gerard of cremona in the http://www.islamset.com/hip/i_medcin/mic_mcvaugh.html

Home Health-an Islamic Perspective Islamic Medicine Health An Islamic Perspective ISLAMIC MEDICINE IN THE KINGDOM OF ARAGON IN THE EARLY FOURTEENTH CENTURY Prof. Michael McVaugh U.S.A. In September 1301 the king of Aragon, James II, wrote urgently to his treasurer commanding him to get the royal "Librum medicine vocatum Avicenne" out of pawn. As he explained in a second letter in March 1302, he had allowed his favorite surgeon, Berengar de Riaria, to pawn the volume with a Barcelona merchant for 500 sueldos, but now he found a "valda necessarium" and had to have it back. Five hundred sueldos was an enormous amount the price of fifty meters of Persian cloth, of a good mule or of a ppor horse and not even the royal treasury always found such sums easy to produce. The king had to repeat his order for the book's redemption for months to come. This volume on which the king placed so much store can only have been Avicenna's Canon

33. G/GE GEAR GEBER GEBHARD GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG GEBWEILER Translate this page GEORGIA GEORGIAN BAY GEORGSWALDE GERA GERALDTON GERANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE GERANIACEAEGERANIUM GERARD GERARD (c. 1040—1120) gerard of cremona GERARD, ARCHBP. http://1911encyclopedia.org/G/GE/

G/GE GEAR GEBER GEBHARD GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG ... GEZER

34. Links Abu Sulayman Muhammad. translations of Aristotle Aristotelianism, medieval.by gerard of cremona gerard of cremona. to Latin Translators. http://www.rep.routledge.com/philosophy/articles/rel/H/H057/H057.html

Related articles See also Further discussion See also: Ancient philosophy Jewish philosophy Medieval philosophy Renaissance philosophy Further discussion Islamic philosophy Islam, concept of philosophy in aesthetics Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy al-Afghani al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din beauty Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy causality Causality and necessity in Islamic thought Christianity relationship Liber de causis Liber de causis Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Cusa al-Dawani al-Dawani, Jalal al-Din definition of Islam, concept of philosophy in early history Islam, concept of philosophy in epistemology Epistemology in Islamic philosophy ethics Ethics in Islamic philosophy al-Farabi al-Farabi, Abu Nasr al-Ghazali al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid God existence of kalam argument God, arguments for the existence of Ibn Hazm Ibn Khaldun Ibn Massara Ibn Miskawayh Ibn Miskawayh, Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ibn ar-Rawandi Ibn ar-Rawandi Ibn Rushd Ibn Sina Ibn Taymiyya Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ibn Tufayl Ibn Tufayl, Abu Bakr Muhammad Illuminationist philosophy Illuminationist philosophy Jewish philosophy comparison (al-Baghdadi) imagination Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy imitation Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy influence of medieval philosphy Medieval philosophy influenced by Greek philosophy Greek philosophy: impact on Islamic philosophy Plotinus Plotinus Simplicius Simplicius Iqbal, M.

35. Arab Medical Schools Kitab alAsrar was first translated into Latin by gerard of cremona (d. 1187), whileKitab al-Tib al-Mansouri appeared in the Latin translation in Milan in 1480 http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam06.html

Arab Medical Schools during the 12th and 13th centuries Edited by Prof. Maher Abd Al Kader M. Ali, Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University, Egypt These pages are edited by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead Professor of Chemistry at Faculty of Science-University of Cairo Giza-Egypt and director of Science Heritage Center E-mail: ead@frcu.eun.eg Web site: http://www.frcu.eun.eg/www/universities/html/shc/index.htm Back to Islamic Alchemy Back to reference library -I- The status of Medicine in the Islamic World The Scientific movement in the early Islamic centuries has various aspects. One of them is the contribution of the early Arab Scientists, which took different forms, their role in scientific progress, the theories they have provided us with, and their methods and influence on the western world which started, as a result, viewing science in a new light during the middle ages. In fact it is not easy to divide the whole unity of science, and claim that this science belongs completely to the Greeks or the Arabs or the West. It is not possible to divide science because it does not belong to one nation, nor to one race. It is the result of co-operation, and communication, among scientists and many other factors. This paper considers the case of medicine in the Arab Islamic World and investigates its nature and schools. To understand the nature of Arab medical schools in the Arabic Islamic World, we have to deal with the status of medicine before the 12th century; the Bimaristans: their system and different purposes; medical educational assemblies: their role in configurating physicians' minds and the method that was followed and then conclude with the results. It is worth noticing that examples have been provided.

36. Database Of Alchemical Manuscripts - Verginelli-Rota Translate this page MS. Verginelli-Rota 43. 19th Century. 1. gerard of cremona. Geomanzia Astronomica. traduitpar le Sieur de Salerne', Paris, 1669. 2. gerard of cremona. http://www.levity.com/alchemy/almss23.html

Database of alchemical manuscripts - Verginelli-Rota Updated Dec 14 1995. Back to database of alchemical manuscripts 2655. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 2. Parchment. 15th Century. Grimoire Magico [In English.] 2656. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 3. 41 folios. Parchment. 138x89mm. 16th Century. Premier Chapitre [...] le quel a la teste. [With 'Donum Dei' series of watercolour illustrations.] 2657. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 4. 15th Century. Tractatula ex intentione sapientium in arte astrorum et scientiae stellarum. [Miscellany by Guido Bonatti (?) from Albumasar (?)] 2658. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 5. 16th Century. [Fragments of an alchemical text in Latin.] 2659. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 6. 15th Century [1597.] Manuel de philosophie chymique. [With pen drawings of 'Rosarium Philosophorum' series.] 2660. Rome, Biblioteca dell'Accademia dei Lincei. MS. Verginelli-Rota 7. 15th Century [1599.]

37. Forum For Modern Language Studies, Volume 35, Issue 4, October 1999: Pp. 358-371 su 'cal treatise by Ab'l Qsim Halaf Ibn 'Abbs alZahrw (Albucasis), of c.980, wastranslated into Latin in the 12th century by gerard of cremona, and into http://www3.oup.co.uk/formod/hdb/Volume_35/Issue_04/350358.sgm.abs.html

Select a journal... Adelphi Papers African Affairs Age and Ageing Alcohol and Alcoholism American Journal of Epidemiology American Law and Economics Review American Literary History Annals of Botany Annals of Occupational Hygiene Annals of Oncology Applied Linguistics Australasian Journal of Philosophy Behavioral Ecology Bioinformatics Biometrika Biostatistics BJA: British Journal of Anaesthesia BJA: CEPD Reviews Brain Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention British Journal of Aesthetics British Journal of Criminology British Jnl. for the Philosophy of Sci. British Journal of Social Work British Medical Bulletin BWP Update Cambridge Journal of Economics Cambridge Quarterly Cancer Science Carcinogenesis Cerebral Cortex Chemical Senses Classical Quarterly Classical Review Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice Communication Theory Community Development Journal Computer Bulletin Computer Journal Contemporary Economic Policy Contributions to Political Economy ELT Journal EMBO Journal Early Music Economic Inquiry English Historical Review Environmental Practice Epidemiologic Reviews ESHRE Monographs Essays in Criticism European Journal of International Law European Journal of Orthodontics European Journal of Public Health European Review of Agricultural Economics European Sociological Review Family Practice Forestry Forum for Modern Language Studies French History French Studies Glycobiology Greece and Rome Health Education Research Health Policy and Planning Health Promotion International History Workshop Journal Holocaust and Genocide Studies

38. Translators see Ibn Sina). gerard of cremona, probably the most prolific of allmedieval translators, also worked in Toledo. Apart from his http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/rep/B110.htm

Translators Translators played a crucial role in the history of medieval philosophy. Since multilingualism was generally restricted to places in which a direct contact between different languages was possible, such as Byzantium, the Near East, southern Italy or Spain, the dissemination of knowledge into foreign cultures was mainly brought about by means of translation. In this conversion process various kinds of writings were involved, including the Bible, the Qur'an and liturgical and hagiographic works as well as literary and historiographic texts. Early Greek-Latin translations The science of the Arabs The Aristoteles Latinus 1. Early Greek-Latin translations The tradition of Greek-Latin translations of philosophical and scientific texts goes back to Cicero , whose philosophical works contain some translated fragments (for example, of Plato's Timaeus ), but consist for the greater part of free adaptations of some contemporary Greek models. The practice of both translation and paraphrase was continued by early Christian writers such as Marius Victorinus and Ambrose (see Patristic philosophy ). As for Plato's

39. Islamic Philosophy: Transmission Into Western Europe Some seventy works were translated from Arabic by gerard of cremona, nicknamed'the Master' (dictus magister), at the cathedral of Toledo. http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/rep/H056.htm

Islamic philosophy: transmission into Western Europe Early translations: twelfth century Thirteenth-century translations The contribution of Jewish scholars The beginnings of Arabic scholarship 1. Early translations: twelfth century Some seventy works were translated from Arabic by Gerard of Cremona , nicknamed 'the Master' ( dictus magister ), at the cathedral of Toledo. These included Aristotle's Posterior Analytics Physics On Generation and Corruption and Meteorology I-III (see Aristotle ), as well as four short tracts on natural science by Alexander of Aphrodisias . To these originally Greek works, Gerard added four philosophical letters of al-Kindi , a letter on proof by the Ikhwan al-Safa' and al-Farabi's Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum (On the Classification of the Sciences) (see al-Farabi Also at this time, the importance of the al-Shifa' (Healing) of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) was brought to the notice of Archbishop John of Toledo by a Jewish scholar called 'Avendauth' (perhaps the same as Abraham Ibn Daud , the author of al-'Aqida al-rafi'a (The Exalted Faith) ). Portions of the text, including those on universals, physics (in part), the soul and metaphysics, were translated by Avendauth, Dominicus Gundissalinus (an archdeacon in the cathedral

40. TIMELINE 12th CENTURY Page Of ULTIMATE SCIENCE FICTION WEB GUIDE p.74 1113 Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh reigns 1113 to 1125, and increasesthe power of Kiev 1114 Birth of Italian scholar gerard of cremona in ITALY http://www.magicdragon.com/UltimateSF/timeline12.html

TIMELINE 12th CENTURY Return to Timeline Table of Contents Return to Ultimate SF Table of Contents TIMELINE 12th CENTURY May be posted electronically provided that it is transmitted unaltered, in its entirety, and without charge. We examine both works of fiction and important contemporaneous works on non-fiction which set the context for early Science Fiction and Fantasy. There are hotlinks here to authors, magazines, films, or television items elsewhere in the Ultimate Science Fiction Web Guide or beyond. Most recently updated: 14-15 June 2000 [37 kilobytes]. Facts were also checked against "The 1979 Hammond Almanac" [ed. Martin A. Bacheller et al., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1978], p.795. It also utilizes facts from Volume I of D.E. Smith's "History of Mathematics" [(c) 1921 by David Eugene Smith; (c) 1951 by May Luse Smith; New York: Dover, 1958]. Jump Straight to the Chronology , or else first read: 12th Century: Executive Summary The 12th Century, according to D.E. Smith, "was to Christian Europe what the 9th Century was to the eastern Mohammedan world, a period of translations . In the case of Baghdad, these translations were from the Greek into Arabic; in the case of Christian Europe, from the Arabic into Latin. The reasons for this desire to know the science of the East are not difficult to find.... the advancement of Moorish Spain in the arts and sciences was already causing intellectual unrest in the higher classes of Church schools in France, Italy, and England. The result of this unrest was an influx of students into Spain, an acquiring of some knowledge of Arabic on the part of various scholars, and a strong desire to know and make known the science of the East. Just as Baghdad never translated the Greek literature, but sought to known Greek science, so Europe gave little attention to Arab letters, but devoted great care to those works on

A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  I  J  K  L  M  N  O  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z

Page 2     21-40 of 101    Back | 1  | 2  | 3  | 4  | 5  | 6  | Next 20