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World-leading researchers, including Nobel Laureates and rising young stars, examine some of the most important and fundamental questions at the forefronts of modern science, philosophy, and theology, taking into account recent discoveries from a range of fields. This fascinating book is ideal for anyone seeking answers to deep questions about the universe and human life. The remarkable career of Charles H. Townes, inventor of the maser and laser for which he shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics, has spanned seven decades. His interests have ranged from the origin of the Universe to the structure of molecules, always focusing on the nature of human life. Honouring his work, this book explores the most basic questions of science, philosophy, and the nature of existence: How did the Universe begin? Why do the fundamental constants of nature have the values they do? What is human consciousness, and do we have free will? ... Read more

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When Columbus was born in the mid-fifteenth century, Europe was isolated in many ways from the rest of the Old World and Europeans did not even know that the world of the Western Hemisphere existed. The voyages of Christopher Columbus opened a period of European exploration and empire building that breached the boundaries of those isolated worlds and changed the course of human history. This book describes the life and times of Christopher Columbus.The story is not just of one man's rise and fall. Seen in its broader context, his life becomes a prism reflecting the broad range of human experience for the past five hundred years. ... Read more

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Balanced view of Columbus as both explorer and man
In The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, the intent of the authors is clearly stated from the beginning:to tell us how Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic forever changed the world by bringing into contact two different "worlds" that were previously unknown to each other.In the process, William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips give a credulous and expansive overview of the context in which Columbus's voyages were made, and the immediate and long-term effects of his trans-Atlantic travel.They are also careful to portray Columbus as a real human being, with both strengths and weaknesses.

To set the scene for Columbus's voyage, the first three chapters are dedicated to describing the changing world of Europe, both socially and economically.They describe a world where states were more likely to be united by their religion rather than politics, with the pope more powerful than any sovereign in Europe.Europe, Asia and Africa, while known to one another, were largely separated by culture and religion.Trade was controlled by Muslim merchants keeping Europeans from Asia and the east coast of Africa.But, the authors tell us, Europeans, through the Crusades, had been re-exposed to Asia, and were tantalized by its perceived offerings.The plague, while a human tragedy that wiped out between one-fourth and one-third of the population, offered new economic opportunities for those who survived because labor was much in demand.Because there were fewer people, there was more wealth among them, creating both the desire for exotic spices and fabrics of the east, and the means to acquire them.The authors discuss all of this, along with the emergence of the printing press and the ability to obtain both books and knowledge, as the world in which Columbus lived.

After discussing these "Old Worlds in Isolation," as chapter two is titled, the authors then expand on the quest for European trade, and discuss the motivations of Europeans for Christianizing the world.They are careful to point out, however, that the majority of the population was not concerned with these grand ambitions; these people were more concerned with making a living and surviving day-to-day.Despite this, the authors explain, the goal of many monarchs was to convert the world by sending missionaries to non-believers; the added benefit of defeating Islam was an equally powerful goal.

Columbus could not have been successful without certain advances in technology, covered in chapter four, "Tools of Expansion."Here, the importance of newer techniques in shipbuilding is discussed, including the hybridization of the old square sail with the newer lateen sails, multiple masts for these different sails, and the emergence of the caravel.These changes, along with the "newer" instruments of navigation (magnetic compass, sea charts, astrolabe) made exploration of the seas possible.Before these were available, sailing out of sight of land was a treacherous affair.One more tool was needed for Columbus to succeed in his quest:the global map of the world, where the North and South American hemispheres were conspicuous by their absence.The authors note that while there is no known contact between Martin Behaim and Columbus, their globes are nearly identical, which is a reflection of the available geographical information of that era.

After describing the fifteenth century world for us in such depth, the authors then give us a biographical account of Christopher Columbus's life.They begin with his early years in Genoa and Portugal, but are careful to point out what is written based upon reasonable speculation and what is written based upon actual fact.While it is important to get a sense of who Columbus was based on his background, his marriage to a woman descended from one of Henry the Navigator's explorers stands out - here, Columbus the ambitious navigator who desires to explore a western route to China has aligned himself with a woman who provides him with inherited maps of a previous maritime explorer.

The subsequent biography traces the difficulties Columbus has securing royal support for his ambitions - first approaching the king of Portugal and then the king and queen of Spain - his first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, and his second and third voyages as well.The authors portray Columbus's humanity all too evidently in his need to exaggerate his findings and to justify his return trips; they also make it clear that while Columbus is more than competent to sail across the Atlantic and to explore the lands he finds there, he is not a very effective leader, nor is he suited to the administration of running a colonial government.This plays no small part in his diminishing importance to Isabel and Fernando, until in the end, he is stripped of the power of the titles they bestowed upon him.As a final chapter, the authors include a survey of the immediate ramifications of Columbus's first voyage to the globalization that is taken for granted today.

Overall, this is a well-written account by two skilled historian authors.Their sources, both primary and secondary, are numerous, and when they are suspect, the authors point this out.This is especially true of the biography written by Hernando Colón, where it is speculated that the first half of this book may not have been written by him, but in any event, has no factual evidence to back up any claims made there.The authors are also sure to point out, in the first chapter, the issues that arise when writing about Columbus, whether his explorations were heroic or if his importance was over-estimated.They discuss the importance of objectively examining any historical person of interest within their own world, rather than with the current political parameters.Last, they discuss the need to keep Columbus in context for a better understanding of what he accomplished, and what he himself believed to have accomplished.All of this makes The Worlds of Columbus a skillfully written and interesting biography of a sometimes controversial figure in western culture.

Christoper Columbus:A Participate
In The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, William D. Phillips, Jr. and Carla Rahn Phillips place Columbus in a broad world context.Phillips and Phillips discuss Columbus and his travels across the Atlantic as a part of a larger inclination of movement in Europe to other parts of the world.By examining Columbus and European society in broader historical and geographic contexts, Phillips and Phillips show that Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic was not a unique event but rather a "continuation of a centuries-old human process of exploration and migration." (1) Before 1492, Europeans met and dealt with peoples "in pursuit of wealth and in service to a militant Christianity." (1)Columbus's voyage west was an attempt to continue what Europeans had done for centuries.

I give the volume 4 stary because of one minor limitation in the volume: the authors' use of a collective "European" mentality and culture.By using "European" instead of particular nations in Europe (or other identities), Phillips and Phillips portray expansion and exploration as a cooperative venture instead of a competition among European states.Instead, the authors should discuss the respective differences among the European nations and their respective economic, geographic, and historical situations.To understand why Spain and Portugal, and not Britain or France, for example, succeeded in exploration in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, these respective countries must be examined on their own, and not hidden by an all-encompassing "European" geographic and historical concept.

Overall, the volume helps to deflect the exceptionalism that usually comes with any discussion of Columbus by placing him and his voyages in broader historical developments.

New Insights on a Traditional Hero and Modern Villain
Afraid that the backlash against an exaggerated hero worship of an often idealized Columbus will lead to a new and equally false myth of Columbus as simple villain, the authors systematically reconstruct the intelllectual atmosphere of 15th century Europeans. The widespread obsessions with religion, trade, Spanish empire building, and bureaucratic organizations are meticulously documented.

The Worlds of Christopher Columbus stands out as a balanced, fair, and well-researchedwork examining the life and legacy of Columbus within the context of his times, European exploration, Christian theology, and the search for quicker/safer trade routes. The book combines a wide variety of sources and perspectives as it chronicles Columbus' four voyages, and many more controversies, to the New World.

The authors, both historians at University of Minnesota, essentially argue that Columbus reflected the basic assumptions of his era like "a prism" combining ambition, zealous Christianity, and excellent navigation skills. The right man at the right place and time, Columbus sought recognition for opening Asia to trade and the expansion of Christianity. Ironically, Coulumbus always passionately condemned the idea that his "his world" was a "new continent."This valuable work brings new insights to the gradual evolution in Columbus goals, from Asian trading and building African style trading posts to island colonization. Columbus' decision to make slavery an economic cornerstone of Spain's new territories recevies special attention. (Queen Isabella, of Spanish Inquistion fame, opposed the enslavement of native tribespeople for religious reasons.)

Exploring Old Worlds
William and Carla Rhan Phillips have done a marvelous job of helping the reader understand the workings of the world of the 15th century. They have divided their book into three major sections; the first sets the stage forthe reader by describing the events which made the voyages of discoverypossible. The second section recounts the details of the actual voyages ofChristopher Columbus, and the third section discusses the aftermath of hisdiscoveries. The Phillips' cover a wide range of subjects, from the"Columbus legends" taught to us as children to the detailedevolution of ship building and navigational tools. Also discussed are thepolitics of the time, the religious beliefs, common knowledge of the periodand more. (It is surprising how many of us were taught that Columbus wasthe only man of the period who believed the earth was round.) Columbus wasnot an accomplished scholar or a misunderstood genius for he held wildlyinaccurate views of the world, his belief that he had discovered Asia neverfaltered. In this book you will get a feel for the evolution ofmaritime technology; how Columbus sought and gained financial support forhis explorations on behalf of Spain; details of the actual outfitting andexplorations of the four voyages made by Columbus. You will learn why thePhillips' described Columbus as a "masterful salesman" whoexaggerated his discoveries.There are many books about Columbus, eachwritten from different angles and differing bias, but I felt this book waswell researched, well documented, and fair minded. So saying, I came awayfeeling that Columbus was a daring mariner, that he was an ineptadministrator who openly disobeyed royal instructions and that he broughtmany of his troubles upon himself. Yet by putting him into the context ofhis time they have softened the harsh edges of his character flaws. I woulddefinitely recommend this work to anyone who wishes to get a welldocumented account of the worlds of Christopher Columbus. ... Read more

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This debut volume in the new series Minnesota Studies in Early Modern History brings a comparative approach to what, in recent years, has been a hotly debated topic within and across a number of academic disciplines: conversion to Christianity. These debates register the challenges inherent in attempting to understand a transformation that was at once personal and collective - a matter of inner conviction and outward conformity. The essays in this volume range from the late antique Middle East to medieval Western and Eastern Europe; from early modern Asia to the Americas and islands in the Central Pacific. Collectively, the ten authors encourage consideration of the conversion phenomenon comparatively across time and space. Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Prince of Asturias Professor the History at Tufts University, frames the essays in a broader global perspective in light of the two other major world religions, Islam and Buddhism, in his Prologue, while John M. Headley, Distinguished University Professor, University of North Carolina, considers the various conversion processes and their broader impact within the cultural transformation of the societies involved, foreshadowing "the uncertain extension of the universal jurisdiction of humanity ... to the peoples of the globe" that is one of the transformative processes of the 21st century.

The Center for Early Modern History (CEMH), established nearly a quarter-century ago at the University of Minnesota, is a major center for the study of the early modern world (ca. 1350-1800) from a comparative perspective. This period is of vital interest to scholars in a variety of disciplines and it is the essential background to understanding global interactions in the modern world. Minnesota Studies in Early Modern History is a natural outgrowth of CEMH's mission to encourage interaction and collaboration among and within the scholarly community and to disseminate the results of that collaboration to the wider audience beyond academe. ... Read more

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The rich cultural and political life of Spain has emerged from its complex history, from the diversity of its peoples, and from continual contact with outside influences. This book traces that history from prehistoric times to the present, focusing particularly on culture, society, politics, and personalities. Written in an engaging style, it introduces readers to the key themes that have shaped Spain's history and culture. These include its varied landscapes and climates; the impact of waves of diverse human migrations; the importance of its location as a bridge between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and Europe and Africa; and religion, particularly militant Catholic Christianity and its centuries of conflict with Islam and Protestantism, as well as debates over the place of the Church in modern Spain.Illustrations, maps, and a guide to further reading, major cultural figures, and places to see, make the history of this fascinating country come alive. ... Read more

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The recent fascinating progress on laser cooling is the result of the close connection between theoretical work and the rapid technological advances in laser sources, particularly in the field of powerful semiconductor and solid-state lasers operating over a wide range of optical and near-infrared frequencies. The very close international and personal collaboration amongst the researchers resulting in a direct link between experimental data and theoretical calculations which characterize work in this field, have been important factors in the rapid comprehension of the subtle and beautiful phenomena involved in laser manipulation.

This Enrico Fermi school is the first formal school fully devoted to this topic. The theoretical part of the book includes contributions on the framework for the study of the photon momentum exchanges in the absence of relaxation, recent mechanisms of laser cooling, an analysis of the cooling forces, analysis of ... Read more